Nucleus It is a spherical-shaped structure, composed of a nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromatin, nuclear matrix, and nucleolus.
It is the central part of the cell involved in controlling and regulating all cell activities
It carries genes that help to transfer hereditary information through chromatin.
Mitochondria Double membrane and rod-shaped structure.
It is the powerhouse of the cell. It helps in generating Adenosine triphosphate(ATP) energy required to perform cellular functions.
The folding of the structure helps in increasing the surface area.
Golgi Apparatus It is composed of flattened cisternae and associated vesicles.
It helps in the synthesis of proteins and lipids. Composed of cisternae
It has the ability to reassemble once fragmented into small vesicles.
Lysosome They are small sphere structures made of lipid bilayers composed of fluid having various hydrolytic enzymes.
It plays role in digesting obsolete components of the cell.
It acts as a garbage floating bag as it includes enzymes performing degradation functions.
Ribosome It is an intercellular structure form of Ribonucleic acid(RNA)and protein.
It helps in assembling amino acids to form protein molecules.
It is considered the site for ribonucleic acid(RNA) and protein.
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum It is a tube-like structure present near the cell periphery, forming a reticular structure in appearance.
It helps in the formation of lipids, phospholipids, and steroids. It also contributes to metabolic processes.
The tube-like structures allow for increasing the surface area
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum It is made of flattened sacs extended across the cytoplasm.
It helps in the production of proteins
The tube-like structures allow for increasing the surface area
Cytoplasm It is a thick solution filled in each cell. It is composed of water, salts, and proteins.
It helps in cell movement and places for cell growth. It is a gel-like fluid present in the cell.
It allows space for cell organelles to move. cytoplasm fluid help in maintaining the shape of the cell (Sapkota, et al. 2022)
Cell membrane It is lipid bilayer semipermeable membrane.
Help in the protection of cellsand regulate the transport of materials.
The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane act as a stable barrier, separating the cell interior from the outside environment.
Peroxisome It is single membrane-bounded vesicle.
Help in metabolism and lipid biosynthesis.
It is a single membrane-bounded organelle that can change its shape and size easily.
Microtubules These are hollow tubes composed of alpha and beta tubulin.
It helps in positioning the organelles in place. It also helps to maintain the shape of cell organelles.
The hollow tube-like structure help in providing strength to the cell.
Vacuole It is a phospholipid membrane-bounded structure present in the cytoplasm.
It helps in the storage of essential components such as proteins, amino acids, and organic acids
Thin-walled structure of the vacuole help in providing rigidity and turgidity to the cell.
Centrioles These are shortened microtubules arranged in open-ended cylinders.
It helps in organising microtubules and help in locating the nucleus and other organelle locations within the cell.
It is present in the cytoplasm. It organises microtubules to form spindle fibres. (Britannica, 2022)
2.Tissues
Labelling
Connective Tissue, Epithelial Tissue, Nervous tissue, and muscle tissue
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Connective Tissue It comprises extracellular fibres, stationary ad migrating cells, and ground substance
It helps in providing structure, protection, and support to body tissues. It helps in nutrient movement and stores fat. It also contributes to repairing damaged tissues.
The fibrous structure of these tissues helps in connecting various tissues for body structure and support.
Epithelial Tissue It is widely spread in all parts of the body and covers the body surface.
It contributes to secretion, absorption, filtration, sensory reception, protection, diffusion, and excretion processes.
The porous nature of these tissue helps in filtration, absorption, and diffusion functions.
Muscle Tissue They are composed of muscle fibres which are elongated and thin cells along with cytoplasm in it.
These tissues are composed of many cells that have the ability to contract and relax. It helps in body muscular movement. They are supplied with blood vessels.
The elasticity, contractility, extensibility, and flexibility of these muscle tissues help in movement and body support.
Nervous Tissue It comprises dendrites, cell body, and axon.
It helps in generating nerve impulses spread throughout the body. Thus, helping in signalling essential functions to the body.
The presence of neurons and glial cells in these tissues helps in sending chemical signals to different parts of the body.
3.The Circulatory system
Labelling
Aorta, Left Atrium, Left Ventricle, Systemic Arteries, Vena Cava, Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Systemic Veins, Capillary bed of all body tissues, Pulmonary Arteries, Pulmonary vein, Capillary bed of lungs
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Aorta It is a cane-shaped artery.
It helps to carry blood from the heart to all other parts of the body.
The neuronal control of the aorta in the blood pressure is by the baro receptors that is present in the aortic arch is an essential characteristic of the control in the circulation. The baroflex of the artery is the key that regulates the blood pressure and the dysfunction is associated with cardiovascular diseases.
Left Atrium It is composed of a distinctive appendage extending from the main part of the atrium.
The mitral valves which are present in the left atrium are responsible for the transfer of the blow flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle. The mitral valve regulates the flow of the blood from the left atrium to the left ventricle.
The thin walls of the atrium help in generating low pressure upon their contraction.
Left Ventricle It is a conical-shaped structure.
It helps to pump oxygenated blood all over the body.
The thicker walls of the left ventricle separate it from the right ventricle.
Systemic arteries It is a large elastic artery that branches further into smaller arteries.
It helps to carry oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all other parts of the body.
The branching of arteries helps in transporting oxygenated blood to all parts of the body.
Vena Cava It is composed of collagen elastic fibres connective tissues, and smooth muscles.
Superior and inferior vena cava returneddeoxygenated blood to the heart for oxygenation.
The collagen and elastic fibres provide flexibility and allow the vena cava to receive input fromthe nervous system through smooth muscles.
Right Atrium It is composed of a large, cavernous chamber and a muscular small appendage.
The tricuspid valveregulates the blood flow from the right atrium to the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve(TRV) acts as a barrier of prevention from the blood to flow in reverse from the chambers. After filling of the right atrium, the tricuspid valves tend to get open from the blood to flow in the right ventricle.
The small appendage projects cranially
Right Ventricle It is the anterior heart chamber.
It receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and transports it into the pulmonary circulation.
The thickness of the right ventricles helps in creating greater pressure to pump out of the heart.
Systemic Veins It is a network of venules that collectively form a larger vein.
It helps to transport blood from body tissues to the heart's right atrium.
The network of venules helps to carry less oxygen blood from tissues.
Capillary bed of all body tissues It is a network of small and thin vessels composed of endothelial and epithelial cells.
It helps in exchanging water, oxygen, nutrients, and other waste substances between the blood and surrounding tissues.
Network formation helps in the greater exchange of oxygen and other nutrients or substances throughout the body.
Pulmonary Arteries It is posterior and anterior to the aorta lined with smooth tissues.
It helps to pump blood from the heart to the lungs.
The pulmonary arteries carry the blood from the heart to the lung. The veins in the arteries carry the blood from lungs to the heart.
Pulmonary vein It is a superior and inferior main vein rising from the hilum.
It helps to receive blood from feeding veins in the lungs and pumps into the left atrium.
The veins in the pulmonary carries the blood which is oxygen rich from the lungs to the heart. The veins are a part of the circuit of pulmonary system.
Capillary bed of lungs It is a network of capillaries spread in the lungs.
It helps to exchange gases by connecting arterioles and venules.
The formation of a network increases surface area and facilitates the exchange of gases. (Cleveland Clinic, 2022)
4.The Respiratory system
Labelling
Nasal cavity, Nostrils, Lungs, pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Mouth, Left bronchus, right bronchus, Ribs, Diaphragm, Intercostal Muscles, and ribs
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Nasal Cavity It is present inside the nose lined with mucous membranes.
It acts as a filter, a conduit for inhaled air, and protectsthe respiratory tract by blocking dirt and dust with the mucociliary system.
Mucous membrane helps to maintain the nose moisture. Presence of hair help in filtering air inhaled.
Nostril These are hollow spaces or openings to flow air in and out of the body.
It allows air to enter the nose and passes to the nasal cavity.
The mucous membrane and nerve cell presence help in sensing smell.
Lungs It is composed of narrow passages that exist in the alveoli.
It helps in exchanging gases between the body and the environment. It delivers oxygen to all body cells.
The alveoli present in the lungs helps in the exchange process between the carbon di oxide and the oxygen in the breathing procedure. The oxygen enters the lung and passes through the alveoli into the tissues and the blood.
Pharynx It is a muscular and funnel-shaped structure.
It helps to connect the mouth and nose with the oesophagus. The pharynx is a muscular tube that connects the oral and nasal cavity to the larynx and oesophagus. The pharynx is a part of the respiratory system which carries the food and the fluid as well as the air from the nose to the mouth. The pharynx is extended for the openness of the air for the breathing but is limited from the pushing of the food in the bolus form to get down to oesophagus for the process of swallowing.
The muscular structure of the pharynx helps in forming constrictions that push food to the oesophagus.
Larynx It is the hollow tube connecting the throat to the respiratory system.
It helps in swallowing, facilitates respiration, and playsa key role in phonation.
The larynx function is to give protection to the lower part of the respiratory tract for the food to transfer into the trachea in the process of breathing. The larynx comprises the vocal cords that used as a function for the production of the sound, which is known as phonation.
Trachea It is a long U-shaped tube.
It takes part in respiration.The function of the trachea is to transfer the air from inner to the outer of the lung. The trachea having a flexible tube is reliable for the oxygen transfer pathway to the body. It acts as a barrier in entering the foreign particles to go through the respiratory system.
Theprimary function of the trachea is to transport air to and from the lungs. Without a trachea, a person would not be able to breathe.The longtube structure help in connecting the larynx to the lungs.
Mouth It is an oval-shaped cavity.
The main function is eating, speaking, breathing, swallowing, and chewing.
The mouth allows the nutrients as well as the air to enter the body and help in speaking. This is known as oral cavity. The mouth is accustomed with the reception of the food through the digestion process.
Left Bronchus It is a shorter airway passage that further divides into smaller branches.
The leftbronchus is used for being the carrier of air to the left lung. The left bronchus entered the lung opposite of the thoracis vertebra in the sixth position, passes through the aortic arch to the oesophagus thoracis duct and lastly to the aorta in the descending order.
Help in the distribution of air into the lungs.
Ribs It is a bony framework of the thoracic cavity.
It helps in protecting organs present in the thoracic cavity and supports upper extremities as well as assists in respiration.
The bony structure help as a protective barrier.
Diaphragm It is a muscular and domed-shaped structure present below the lungs.
It helps in non-respiratory functions such as expelling vomit, faeces and urine by increasing intra-abdominal pressure. It also allows for the prevention of acid reflux.
The contraction of the diaphragm enlarges the chest cavity.
Intercostal Muscles It is a group of muscles found between ribs.
It helps to form and maintain cavitiesproduced by the ribs.
These muscles help in contraction and expansion while breathing.
Right Bronchus It is a wider airway passage that further divides into smaller branches.
It helps to carry air to the right lung.
Help in the distribution of air into the lungs.
Pleural cavity It is closely chested walls.
It helps to transmit pressures to the visceral pleural surfaces and the lungs.
The pleural cavity is responsible for the lung to function in the breathing process. It transfers the chest movements to the lung during heavy breathing.
5.The Digestive system
Labelling
Mouth, Submandibular Salivary Glands, Parotid Salivary gland, Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Gallbladder, Large intestine, small intestine, Appendix, Rectum, and Anus
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Mouth It is an oval-shaped cavity.
It helps in digestion, breathing, swallowing, talking, and chewing.
A small piece of tissue called the epiglottis covers your windpipe. The epiglottis prevents choking.
Submandibular Salivary Glands These are superficial deep lobe structures.
It produces saliva helping in chewing, digestion, and swallowing activity.
The excretory duct helps to drain into the oral cavity.
Parotid Salivary glandAnd in mumps may be swollen It is connected with a tube present below and in front of each ear.
The tube helps to carry saliva to the mouth
Helping in swallowing and digestion purpose.
Oesophagus It is a muscular tube-like structure.
It acts as a passage for the transportation of food andnutrient to the stomach.And helps to prevent choking.
The tube helps to connect the mouth with the stomach.
The stomach is a J-shaped organ that digests food. It produces enzymes (substances that create chemical reactions) and acids (digestive juices). This mix of enzymes and digestive juices breaks down food so it can pass to your small intestine.
Several layers of muscle and other tissues make up your stomach: • Mucosa is your stomach’s inner lining. When your stomach is empty, the mucosa has small ridges (rugae). When your stomach is full, the mucosa expands, and the ridges flatten. • Submucosa contains connective tissue, blood vessels, lymph vessels (part of your lymphatic system) and nerve cells. It covers and protects the mucosa. • Muscularis externa is the primary muscle of your stomach. It has three layers that contract and relax to break down food. • Serosa is a layer of membrane that covers your stomach.
A storage system
Liver It is two lobes like structure. Bile duct It is a long thin duct connecting the liver and gallbladder.
The liver is a large organ found in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen. It is a multifunctional accessory organ of the gastrointestinal tract and performs several essential functions such as detoxification, protein synthesis, bile production and nutrient storage to name only a few. It is the largest gland in the human body, weighing approximately 1.5 kilograms. It works synchronously with many other organs and contributes to the maintenance of basic homeostatic mechanisms. The bilirubin transfers from the liver to the excretion of the body. The much more level of the bilirubin can be an indication with problems related to bile duct and liver. Their high level of bilirubin can be responsible to destroy the blood cells.
The Falciform ligament help to connect the liver with the abdominal wall. The lining of the duct helps in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Gallbladder It is a pear-shaped organ.
It helps in storing bile from the liver.
The enzymatic activity help in concentrating bile upon stimulation to contract.
Small intestine It is a muscular coiled tube divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Digestion and absorption of food.
The mucosal cell lining help in digestion.
Large intestine It is a long, muscular structure.
It helps in food digestion and passes undigested food to the rectum
The contraction and relaxation of the muscular wall release enzymes to help in digestion.
Appendix It is a thin tube structure present in the lower abdomen.
It acts as a storehouse for good bacteria.
Its vestigial hollow tube was found close at one end and the other attached to the cecum.
Rectum It is a muscular sheet that is continuous with the sigmoid colon.
It acts as a temporary place for undigested food.
The voluntary muscle of the rectum helps in the excretion process.
Anus It is a long canal composed of pelvic floor muscles.
It helps in excreting out waste from the body.
The lining of the upper anus detects rectal contents.
Pharynx It is a muscular and funnel-shaped structure.
It helps to connect the mouth and nose with the oesophagus and larynx.
The muscular structure of the pharynx helps in forming constrictions that push food to the oesophagus.
Tongue It is a muscular structure with a mucosal surface.
It helps in tasting, speaking, swallowing, and breathing.
The mucosal surface excretes enzymes that help in tasting and swallowing.
Oral cavity It is a hollow region comprising teeth, palate, tongue, and lips.
It acts as a small compartment for digestive organs such as teeth, tongue, lips, and others.
It encloses major salivary glands.
Epiglottis It is a flap of cartilage.
It helps in preventing food from entering the respiratory tract.
The elastic cartilage help provides structural support.
Pancreas It is an elongated and tapered organ.
It helps in digestion and regulation of blood sugar levels in the body.
The pancreas secretes the enzymes which is known as the pancreatic juice. It helps in the digestive system through the production of hormones.
It helps in filtering blood. A frontal section through the kidney reveals an outer region called the renal cortex and an inner region called the renal medulla. In the medulla, 5-8 renal pyramids are separated by connective tissue renal columns. Each pyramid creates urine and terminates into a renal papilla. Each renal papilla drains into a collecting pool called a minor calyx; several minor calyces connect to form a major calyx; all major calyces connect to the single renal pelvis which connects to the ureter.
The kidney extracts the fluid and the waste that is present in the body. The kidney reduces the acid, produced by the cell to balance the minerals in the body. Reabsorption of vital nutrients, which includes glucose (at normal plasma level), amino acids, water, sodium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, calcium, bicarbonate and phosphate.
Aorta It is a cane-shaped artery.
It carries oxygenated blood throughout the body from the heart
It contains less collagen than elastin thus providing support to the tissues.
Renal Artery It originates from the anterior and lateral sides of the aorta and reaches to kidney
It carries blood away from the aorta to the kidneys.
Fibrous nature of the artery helps in carrying a huge amount of blood to the kidney.
Renal Vein It is a form of smaller veins joined together in the renal hilumposterior and anterior.
It carries blood from the kidney to the inferior vena cava.
The posterior vein helps in draining the back section of the kidney.The blood vessel carries the blood from ureter and kidney to the large vein known as inferior vena cava.
Hilum It is composed of pulmonary vessels.
It acts as a junction point to connect the lungs with pulmonary vessels.
It is arranged asymmetrically.
Bladder It is a triangular hollow structure placed with ligaments at the lower abdomen.
Help in storing urine and it takes part in excretion.
The presence of ligaments helps in keeping its position stable.
Ureter It is composed of mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia.
It helps to transport urine from the kidney to the bladder.
The muscles of the bladder help to tighten and relax which helps in urine downward movement.
Urethra It is a tube-like structure made of the thin wall with epithelial tissues.
It helps to pass urine out of the body.
It is composed of epithelial and smooth muscle tissues with thin walls helping in the excretion of urine.The different length of the female and male urethra) Longer) does impact on the incidence of urinary tract infection.
7.The Nervous system
Labelling
Brain, Spinal Cord, Ganglion, Nerves, and Digestive Tract.
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Brain Composed of three main parts cerebrums, cerebellum, and brainstem. The hemisphere of brain has the sections of lobes which are frontal, parietal, occipital and the temporal. The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses.
It performs several functions such as contributing to thought and decision-making, memories, emotions, body movement, organ function regulation, speech and language functions, and others.
Each part of the brain functions differently and is in coordination.The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work together: • The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex. • The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here. • The basal ganglia are a cluster of structures in the centre of the brain. The basal ganglia coordinate messages between multiple other brain areas. • The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance. The brain is also divided into several lobes: • The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving and judgment and motor function. • The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting, and body position. • The temporal lobes are involved with memory and hearing. • The occipital lobes contain the brain's visual processing system. The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the meninges. The skull (cranium) helps protect the brain from injury
Spinal cord It is a long cylindrical structure.
The spinal cord is a bundle of spinal nerves wrapped together. The spinal nerves enter and exit the spinal cord through small spaces between the vertebrae. The blood vessels which carry oxygen to the spinal cord also use these spaces. You have 8 pairs of cervical nerves, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and 6 sacral. Near the waist, the nerves continue in a bundle called the cauda equina. This is commonly called the ‘horses’ tail’ as that’s what it looks like. Spinal nerves transmit and receive messages to and from the brain. They are the main communication between your brain and your body. There are two main parts to each nerve – one carries sensory (feeling) information, and one carries motor (movement) information. Upper Motor Neurones (UMN) are the long spinal nerves within the spinal cord, and Lower Motor Neurones are nerves that connect the spinal cord to organs, skin and muscles. The spinal cord is involved in the function of carrying signals of the nerves from various parts of the body. It helps in controlling the functions of the body system including involuntary functions. It also helps in controlling the movements of the body by transferring the signals from the brain to various parts of the body and vice versa. The spinal cord is also involved in the function of managing various reflexes of the body.
• Your spinal cord is the connection between your brain and the rest of your body • Your spinal cord is soft, and enclosed in a bony tunnel – the spine • Your brain communicates via the spinal cord to control voluntary functions such as movement and sensation (feeling), and involuntary functions, which are the things your body does automatically, such as breathing • Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) can occur after a traumatic injury or as a result of disease • The amount of function that is affected depends on both the level and the severity of your spinal cord damage.The spinal cord helps in the sending mechanism of motor commands from the brain. The sensory information is send from the body to brain and the reflection of coordination process.
Ganglion It is generally considered an ovoid structure comprising neurons and glial cells.
It functions as a relay station between neurons. It helps to transfer nerve signals.
The network spread of ganglions connects neurological structures in the body.
Nerves It is comprised of a bundle of fibres that are surrounded by tissue layers and fat and scattered throughout the body.
It helps in taking electrical impulses from the brain to other parts of the body. It also contributes to maintaining autonomic functions.
The network of nerves to all body parts help in signalling autonomic functions.
Digestive tract It is a series of hollow organs connected with long twisted tubes joining the mouth and anus.
It helps in generating neutral plexuses that help in autonomic functions such as digestion, nutrient absorption, and others.
The process of autonomic functions controls by the central nervous system.
Cerebellum The half-circle shape surrounding the brain stem comprises horizontal groves from top to bottom.The cerebellum is also known as the “central brain” which has an integrated loop structure in association with the “cerebral cortex”, “spinal cord” and “brain stem”. It is known to be the complex region of the brain that comprises modules in the form of “sagittal orientation”. It is mainly involved in the functioning of motor control performed by the brain.
It helps to connect the spinal cord with the brain.
Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Amygdala It is a nested and complex structure of cells present in the middle brain.
It deals with memories and emotional functions in the brain.
The nested structure help in receiving visceral inputs from the hypothalamus, parabrachial nucleus, and other regions.
Hypothalamus Present in the brain divided into parasagittal and coronal plane
It helps in the secretion of hormones contributing to fluid balance, and contraction of smooth muscle as well as involved in the anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretion control. Hypothalamus is involved in the controlling of body temperature, sleep cycle, blood pressure level and emotions. It interacts with the pituitary gland for maintaining the release of hormones from both the “anterior and posterior pituitary glands”. Hypothalamus secretes two types of hormones that are “dopamine” and “somatostatin”. Hypothalamus is thereby involved in the correction of fluctuations in body temperatures, body rhythms and levels of stress.
The regions contribute to hormone production which controls the anterior pituitary gland secretions.
Pituitary gland It is a pea-sized gland located below the hypothalamus.
The anterior pituitary is involved in the release of hormones which controls the cellular processes of the body. It includes the secretion of growth hormones which enables the growth process of the human body. It also secretes five other hormones like “ACTH”, “prolactin”, “FSH”, “TSH” and “Luteinizing hormone”.Anterior Pituitary the hypophyseal portal system, this structure allows the hypothalamus to communicate with the anterior pituitary via the release of neurotransmitters into the bloodstream. Posterior Pituitary The infundibulum and posterior pituitary gland receive a rich blood supply from many arteries. Of these, the major vessels are the superior hypophyseal artery, infundibular artery and inferior hypophyseal artery.
Chemical signals sent by the hypothalamus results in the release of hormones.
Parathyroid gland It is a four-nodular structure.
This gland functions in the regulation of calcium ions in the body fluid.
The release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) maintains calcium homeostasis.
Thyroid gland It is a butterfly-shaped organ located at the base of the neck.
This gland releases hormones which affect calcium ion levels and metabolic rate in the body.
It helps in controlling many activities in the body.
Thymus It is present in the lymphatic system
Deals with the secretion of hormones responsible for stimulating and coordinating the immune response in the body.
The structure of the Thymus releases special white T cells that help in creating an immune response against the antigen.
Pancreatic islet It is a small island of cells
It secretes hormones that deal with utilisation and uptake of glucose by body tissues.
Pancreatic islets are involved in the “production of insulin” which regulates the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. The function of the islets also includes the “production of glucagon” and “glycogenesis” which is involved in the triggering of growth hormones the “somatotropin”. Human islets are routinely transplanted into diabetic patients, but while this can result in therapeutic success, their supply is limited.
Gonads Having different structures in males and females.
It takes part in the production of steroid hormones and gametogenesis
The structure
Testis Oval-shaped organs, covered with fibrous layers of tissues.
It plays part in the synthesis of testosterone which is a male sex hormone. Also, it takes part in the regulation of reproductive functions with the hypothalamus-pituitary unit.
It comprises testicles and epididymis which store sperms for maturation.
Ovary Located at either side of the Uterus.
The ovary of the female reproductive system secretes two hormones namely “progesterone” and “estrogen”. These hormones are involved in the development of the reproductive system of the body among females. The hormones are also involved in the proper function of the menstrual cycle of females.
The production of female hormones estrogen and progesterone which take part in fertility, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy.
Adrenal glands Triangular-shaped glands located at the upper region of the kidney.
It helps in regulating blood pressure, stress, metabolism, and other essential functions. The adrenal medulla is responsible for producing catecholamines, or adrenaline type hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. We have all experienced that sudden panic feeling and anxiety when something happens suddenly and unexpectedly, and we get scared. Suddenly, we have tingles, and we feel like we need to run away or stand up and fight. This is the "fight-or-flight" symptoms, and it is caused by the sudden release of adrenaline from our adrenal glands. (Yes, adrenaline is called this because it comes from the adrenal gland). Adrenaline as we call it generically can be broken down into two different hormones that the adrenal medulla produces: epinephrineand norepinephrine.
Adrenal glands are also called “supra renal glands” which are triangular in shape. They are a type of endocrine glands that are involved in the secretion of various hormones in the body system of humans. The adrenal cortex secretes the hormones “adrenal androgens”, “glucocorticoids” and “mineralocorticoids”. The hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla are “epinephrine”, “dopamine” and “norepinephrine”.Hence the Adrenal Medulla and Cortex Produce Very Different Hormones.
Pineal gland It is a tiny pinecone-shaped structure that extends from the brain's third ventricle posterior side.
This gland releases melatonin that develops circadian rhythms day and night as well as affects the function of the reproductive system.
The pinecone structure of the gland receives information from the retina of the eye about the day and night cycle and releases melatonin.
Heart It is a muscular structure and comprises four chambers two atriums and two ventricles.
This part secretes hormones contributing to the regulation of blood volume.
“Atrial natriuretic peptide” is a type of cardiac hormone which is involved in the regulation of the balance of salt and water. The pressure of blood is also regulated by the hormone thereby causing the promotion of the excretion of water and renal sodium. The hormone is also involved in the stimulation of the heart.
Digestive tract It is a series of hollow organs connected with long twisted tubes joining the mouth and anus.
Secretion of hormones takes part in maintaining glucose metabolism and appetite.
By the secretion of enzymes by various digestive tract organs that help in metabolism.
9.The Musculoskeletal system
Labelling
The musculoskeletal system compromises “connective tissues”, “bones”, “ligaments”, “cartilages” and “tendons”. It forms the framework of the body involving all the soft tissues as well as the muscles of the body. It thereby maintains the posture and aids in the movement of the body system of humans.
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Pectoralis major It helps in making chest muscles and lies under the breast.
Major functions are flexion, internal rotation of the humerus, and adduction.
The attachment of the pectoralis major with the upper part of the chest and bone of the upper arm allows rotation and movement.
Bicep brachii It is a two-headed muscle of the arm.
It functions by providing supination and flexion. It takes part in flexing the elbow and rotating the forearm.
It allows 90-degree rotation as it is attached to the radius.
Rectus abdominis These muscles are located from the middle of the abdomen to the front of the pelvis.
It helps in holding the internal organs in their place and provides stability during the movement.
The strap-like shape of the muscle provides stability and helps in moving the upper body.
External oblique It is the largest and most superficial abdominal muscle.
It helps in trunk movement
The structure of the external oblique allows bilateral contraction along with internal oblique flexes and rectus abdomens which flexes the trunk.
Quadriceps femoris group It is comprised of four other individual muscles which form the bulk of the thigh.
It helps in leg extension and supports leg movements.
The group of femoris muscles allows for the gain of a high amount of mass and support in movement.
Clavicle It is a sigmoid-shaped long bone comprised of a convex surface.
It functions in connecting the appendicular and axial skeleton in combination with the scapula.
The connectivity of different structural help in making pectoral girdle.
Humerus It is one of the largest and longest arm bones.
It provides an insertion point to many other upper body muscles and provides structural support to the arm.
The articulation of the humerus with scapula allows the shoulder movement.
Ulna It is a lateral bone of the forearm comprised of the proximal end, shaft, and distal end.
It allows supinating, flexing, and pronate the forearm and hand as well as allow extension, flexion, and adduction of the wrist
The head of the radius allows articulation contributing to pronation and supination
Pelvis It is a basin-shaped and central bone of the body.
It helps in connecting the trunk with the legs. Also, it allows attachment of the strongest muscles of the body as well as supports internal sex organs, the urinary bladder, and the intestine.
It acts as a transition point from the axial to the appendicular skeleton.
Patella It is considered as largest sesamoid bone.
It allows attachment of the patellar ligament and quadriceps tendon.
The structure of the patella allows effective extension capacity of the quadriceps muscle.
Femur The femur is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the human body.It is the prism-shaped bone that comprises tibial and tuberosity.
It provides support the body while standing or moving. The main function of the femur is weight bearing and stability of gait. An essential component of the lower kinetic chain. The robust shape of the femur provides many sturdy attachment points for the powerful muscles of the hip and knee that contribute to walking and other propulsive movements
The structure of the long and strong bone of the leg connects to the lower extremities as well.
11.Male reproductive system
The reproductive system of males includes a group of reproductive organs which includes the “scrotum, testicles, penis, and epididymis”.
Structure
Function
Role of structure to function
Rectum is 8-inch straight portion of large intestine connecting colon to anus.
Stores faeces before elimination.
Holds the stool before excretion.
Urinary bladder is triangle shaped, hollow organ having folds and smooth muscle layer.
Holds urine.
Smooth muscles help in retaining and releasing urine.
Ureter is thin, bilateral tubular structure connecting kidneys and urinary bladder.
Transport urine from kidneys to bladder.
Muscular layers in ureter help in transporting urine using peristaltic activity.
Penis It is the male body part which functions for the sexual intercourse and it has three different parts such as ? Two different chambers have been addressed as Corpora Cavernosa and it is running the penis length. In addition, it is containing the blood vessels maze which is shaped as cavernous spaces ? The erectile tissue is surrounding the urethra and two major arteries, nerves and veins. ? The urethra is for urination and sperm that is running along with corpora cavernosa ? Haft has been considered as longest part present in Penis ? Glans or head is present at the end of the shaft ? Meatus is the head by which semen and urine are discharged
The penis is playing a crucial role in the process of sexual intercourse and urination
The tissues in the penis are relaxing and contracting the facilitation of seminal and urination discharge
Urethra thin muscular tube.
Releasing urine and ejaculation of semen during sexual intercourse.
Thin muscular structure help in transporting urine form bladder to outside of the body and expels semen form seminal vesicles.
Epididymis long coiled tube.
Carry and store sperm cells.
Long coiled tubular structure help in carrying sperms till maturation.
Testes It is containing three different parts and it has been covered by fibrous and tough layers that have been identified in tissue which is addressed as Tunica. ? The inner layer is addressed as Tunica Albuginea ? The outer layer is addressed as Tunica Vaginalis ? The U-shaped tubes have been addressed as Seminiferous Tubules It is holding the testicles, blood vessels and nerves and the scrotum is protecting the testes and providing an effective climate control system. Testosterone is a crucial hormone for the maturation and development of males and it is helping to develop muscles and deepening voice.
Testes is a crucial body part, which makes sperm and has been involved to produce a hormone called testosterone.
A coiled tubule has been identified in the testes and it is producing sperm cells with the help of spermatogenesis.
Prostate gland, walnut sized structure located below urinary bladder.
Provides fluid to nourish sperm cells.
Large structure helps in carrying additional fluid for sperm nourishment.
Seminal vesicle are sac shaped pouches attached to vas deferens.
Produce fructose rich fluid to nourish and help in the movement of sperms.
Sac like pouches carry the cells to produce the seminal fluid (Cleveland Clinic, 2020).
12.Female reproductive system
The entire system of female reproductive is consisting of both the external as well as internal organs. In addition, it is creating some crucial hormones and is responsible for the process of fertilization, menstruation and sexual intercourse. The external parts of the female reproductive system are comprised of labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, Hymen and opening to the urethra. On the other hand, the internal parts of the female reproductive system are the cervix, vagina, uterus, ovaries and fallopian tubes.
structure
Function
Contribution
Vagina it is considered as a muscular canal that joins the cervix with the outer parts of the body. It is playing a crucial role by enabling females in terms of experiencing sexual pleasure and passaging the blood through a channel. Moreover, it is playing an essential role in childbirth and pregnancy.
It plays an essential role in reproduction, childbirth, sexual intercourse and arousal.
Muscular canal contracts to carry and deliver the child.
Ovaries are small glands having oval shape and located outside uterus.
Production of eggs and hormones.
Glands inside ovaries release hormones and produce eggs.
Cervix It is the lower part of the uterus and a hole present in middle is allowing sperm to take enter and the menstrual blood for taking an exit. It also opens for giving birth and it is preventing several things such as tampons from being lost in the body.
It allows them to take entry and exit fluids into the body and out of the body
The Cervix is playing a crucial role in order to allow the fluids for passing between the vagina and the uterus. At the same time, it is enabling the baby for leaving from the uterus hence, it may travel through the vagina at the time of childbirth.
Fallopian tubes are narrow tubes attached to uterus.
Fertilisation of eggs and transfer of eggs.
Narrow structure allows them to transfer the ova cells from ovaries to uterus (Cleveland Clinic, 2019).
13.The Lymphatic and Immune systems
The lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into the circulatory system (your bloodstream).
The entire system of Immune and Lymphatic is protecting the human body against taking entry of the foreign invaders. In addition, the lymphatic system is a crucial part present in the Immune System. Moreover, it is producing and releasing the lymphocytes like White blood cells and different types of immune cells which are monitoring and destroying all foreign invaders.
Structure
Function
Contribution
Lymph nodes are bean shaped, either single or in chains.
Filter out lymph, cleanse cells, produce and store lymphocytes.
The bean shaped structure allows them to accommodate the hormones and perform cleansing of lymph.
Tonsil are bundles of lymphatic tissues located in lateral side of oropharynx.
Defence against pathogens in food and air.
Bundles of lymphatic tissues trap the pathogens.
Thymus has two lobes joined by isthmus.
Maturation of white blood cells.
Lobular stricture of thymus produce hormone for the production of white blood cells.
Lymphatic duct form when tiny lymphatic vessels merge to form a larger vessel.
Empties the lymph into subclavian vein.
Vessel provides a cavity to transport lymph from lymphatic vessels to veins where it joins blood stream.
Spleen is located below the ribs and is large sized organ having red and white pulp.
Filters and stores blood and produce WBCs.
Red pulp inside spleen filters blood while pulp in the spleen produces WBCs.
Thoracic duct is a thin vessel.
Transport lymph back to the circulatory system.
A type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow and is found in the blood and in lymph tissue. The two main types of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. B lymphocytes make antibodies, and T lymphocytes help kill tumour cells and help control immune responses.
Cisterna chyli large structure located inferior to the diaphragm structure.
Receives lymph from left and right lumbar sides, intestinal areas and form lower intercostal vessels.
Large structure helps in collecting large amount of lymph from different areas of the body.
Lymphatic vessels are capillaries like network.
Transport lymph to and away from tissues.
Small vessels collect lymph and take to large vessel acting as collecting ducts (Nigam and Knight, 2020).
14.The Integumentary system
This system has been considered as largest organ in the human body and it is forming physical barriers among internal and external environments. In addition, it is playing as a crucial role in terms of maintaining and protecting the entire system in the human body. Moreover, the Integumentary system is containing Dermis, Epidermis, hair, nails and their associated glands. Moreover, all those structures and organs are taking the position as the first line and the entire system is working with another system in the human body and keeping it in an accurate balance.
Structure
Function
Contribution
Epidermis The epidermis is playing a crucial role as a protective barrier and it plays against thermal, physical and mechanical injury and all hazardous substances. It is also preventing moisture loss in excess amounts and reducing the harmful effects of Ultraviolet radiation and also it is playing as a sensory organ.
Protects the body from different outer factors and help in releasing nutrients and water.
The thick elastic layer helps in protecting the body form external pressure and stimuli and the pores help in releasing fats and water in the form of sweat.
Dermis contains sweat glands, hair follicles and sebaceous glands and is made up of connective tissue.
Temperature regulation, and protection against germs and dust particle.
The hair follicle and sweat gland help in regulating temperature while sebaceous glands release sebum to protect from germ and dust.
Hypodermis is the bottom skin layer.
Stores energy connects outer skin to bones and protects the body.
As located beneath the other two layers, connects muscles and skin and provide nervous and other receptors connecting to the skin (Kim and Dao, 2021).
Pacinian corpuscle is onion-shaped connective tissue formed around nerve endings.
Reduces mechanical sensitivity around nerves.
These receptors sense pressure and vibration due to their connection with nerve endings.
Nerves are extended web like structure. And bundle of nerve fibres.
Transfer neurons and nerve impulses.
Nerve fibres allow them to conduct nerve impulses around the body.
Meissner corpuscle comprises of a cutaneous nerve ending and is made up of flattened cells in irregular layers.
Sense light stimulus of touch to the skin
The component of the nerve endings of the superficial fibular nerve allows the nerve to detect the pressure that is being exerted on the skin. This is because it speeds it articular branches to several parts that notify when there is pressure.
Thermo-receptor has Krause ending and Ruffini endings bulbs and large dendritic endings.
Sense temperature and warmth.
Krause end bulb detect cold and Ruffini endings detect warmth to the skin.
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