Impact of Conspiracy Theories on Vaccine Acceptance Patterns
Question 1
The title of the research article is “The Association of conspiracy beliefs and the Uptake of COVID-19 Vaccination: a cross-sectional Study”.this has been obtained from “BMC Public Health”. The first author of the research paper is “Kinga Kowalska-Duplaga” followed by Mariusz Duplaga.
There are main identifiable research questions are the conspiracy and analysis of the association which is between the acceptance of the vaccination of COVID-19 and conspiracy and beliefs among adults. This study is based on the survey method. There are some surveys and interviews have been conducted to get the proper answer related to the question. This research question has been asked to the targeted group of people.
Question 3
Here the study design of the article paper that has been chosen in this paper is based on the primary descriptive design method. This research paper refers to the studies that have been conducted individual studies, in which process the researchers have analysed and generated their data, which have been collected by survey and interview methods. This primary research article is based on the study that is based on this author's original paper of research that has been published in this paper (Franzitta et al. 2020). This research article is a kind of research which has been designed in a descriptive manner and aims to obtain more information systematically, here some interviews and surveys have been conducted to describe a phenomenon situation based on vaccination of COVID- 19. To be more precise it can also tell this type of study helps to answer related to all the survey questions which are associated with “what”, where, when and how these types of questions are regarded with the problems of the research.
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This research article is based on the design that has been observed by a participant, it is not necessary for the observer can be a complete observer, or it also can be observed by a participant. Like here in this research paper the incident of COVID- 19 vaccinations, these incidents have been observed by a lot of adults. This type of design has been used here to conduct the descriptive design that has a specific aim to identify the characters, trends, frequencies and all the categories. In this research paper, the direct mode of research has been conducted without relying on the previous source of data or any pre-existing articles or samples (Dreyer et al. 2019).
Here, in this research topic, all this data has been collected by a method of surveying and interviews that helps to discover the collection of data that needed to be more precise.The assessment is based on some questions that need to answer by following some articles. Here an article has been chosen from an original article of research. The of the research article is “The Association of conspiracy beliefs and the Uptake of COVID-19 Vaccination: a cross-sectional Study” from “BMC Public Health”. Based on the research paper some questions and assessments have been done. Critically discussed all the topics related to this article and also critically analysed the bias to improve the research article paper.
Question 4
The author chooses this Primary and Descriptive study design because primary types of research methods are mainly targeted types of approaches to help the research market. This research market helps to address the more specific market of research, which is more relevant to the objective. Here the objective of the study is to analyse the acceptance of COVID-19 vaccination among adults. This objective will only get justified if the survey method or interviews have occurred. This will enhance the scope of the study even more and also help to collect more data respectively. This means the research paper will show the effect on the market of individuals rather than in a market with mass.
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Also in this study this type of primary research helps to allow the marketer to take over control of the used methodology (Lester et al. 2020). This will further help to improve more in the research. Also here primary research helps to allow the guarantee with all the information that has been collected these are up to date, as they are giving interviews freshly as well as relevant and also ensure calculation of the accurate trends that need to be revealed.
Here also descriptive research design has been used in this paper because, among all the types of design based on research, the descriptive research design is the simplest. As said by Doyle et al. (2020), these types of study design allow the researchers to distribute some more variables that will regard in the casual or different hypothesis. In this article, the descriptive design provides a "comprehensive picture" that shows the characters and behaviours of a specific population here particular populations includes adults, which has helped to understand the topic deeper and help to gain a better understanding of the topic. By conducting surveys and interviews all these questions have been solved more precisely. For this reason, this article paper is based on the primary and in a descriptive manner.
Question 5
In research, bias can occur for any reason, whether it can be a systematic error or can be introduced by the sampling method of collecting data. There is a huge significance in identifying the bias in a particular research paper. Understanding bias in a paper of research it can help to allow the reader to independently and critically review the literature paper or research paper, which can help to optimize the potential of harm. An understanding of bias is very important in how the bias helps to understand the bias and helps to result in the method of problem-solving basis. As proposed by Boutron et al. (2019), bias can be usually prejudicial or unfair if often they are based on stereotypes, but not based on the knowledge or any sort of experience. Here some of these types of bias have been identified, which are bias in the data collection method and cofounding.
Bias can happen at any phase of particular research. This can include in the design of the study of the method of data collection. In this research article paper, there might have been a chance of biases in the sampling which are tested or selected by the author of the research paper. And it has a bias in confounding the collection of data.
In this research article, there are some biases that can be observed in the process of Selection. Selection bias is a form of distortion that helps in, a measure of association. To be precise, in this study here the selection of data has been conducted not by random sampling, which means that does not precisely reflect the population of the target people (Mehrabi et al. 2021). In this research paper selection bias has occurred due to the interviews and samples occurring in an improper procedure of selection for sampling. But it can also happen in case of participation that is related to the study. As told by Kahalon et al. (2022), in either case, there can be a final study which was not conducted by the study of the final population. This sampling has done through the process of study members who were selected. Selection bias can also occur when it is associated with the study that is compared to the population of the target. As opined by Mohamed et al. (2022), this data collection usually loses some of the follow-ups because it has not been followed by random sampling. This bias can be associated with the study in case of the biases of the study happens due to the method of bias sampling.
There is one more bias in the research article is related to confirmation bias. Confirmation bias is can be referred to as the unconscious or the conscious tendency to "affirm a particular theory" or outcomes, opinions or any findings. This specific bias has occurred in this study that includes the information that has a shred of evidence which is included with the confirmation from a position if desired. The impact of the bias in this research refers to the gathered information that how people influence by the information of what they believed. In this case of acceptance of vaccination in COVID-19, here are some people who believed earlier that it will show the effect on their body, as what they believed and they only supported this particular belief but did not seek any of the information to support their answers but they believe what they know. This bias of conformation occurs in such a way called biased attention, where some selective information is confirmed only. There are some benefits related to the bias that can be included to speed the typer of scrutiny and also helps to improve the detection of the target that needs to change the situation in a choice of rapidly to ensure the quality of the assessment to get improved. This bias helps to meet the desire result in a research paper.
Question 6
Conclusion of the study
Conspiracy belief within healthcare settings has shaped the vaccination attitude during a pandemic. The selected article on assessing the relationship between the Covid-19 vaccination and conspiracy beliefs has drafted a conclusion that the4 conspiracy belief exerts an effect on vaccine hesitancy that shapes the attitudes of the individual toward the up taking of Covid-19 vaccination (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). The article reflects on the conspiracy beliefs that are frequently linked with “extreme political identification”. It is independently associated with COVID-19 practices vaccination. Similarly, as opined by Yang et al.(2021), challenges that have been identified in developing a conspiracy among the population includes, vaccine-related, generic, and COVID-19-related from the socio-demographic variables. Studies show a number of factors that contribute to influencing the conspiracy belief including vaccine hesitancy, health literacy, anxiety level and political sympathies. Hence, the select articles on assessing the Covid-19 vaccination uptake and conspiracy beliefs among Poland users has been concluded that conspiracy beliefs associated with vaccination as well as COVID-19 act independently, therefore, affect COVID-19 vaccination uptake.
Denialism is human behaviour that denies up taking medical treatment despite the delivery of strong evidence based on valid research and findings. It is inherently linked with “conspiratorial thinking”, therefore identifying conspiracies is significant in analysing the “elements of Denialism”. As per several studies, Conspiracy theories were found to reject the explanation standard of a particular event. It attributes the group of people to the covert organisation in carrying secret plots. As referred to by Jennings et al. (2021). Conspiracy theory underlying human behaviour which is not unusual on the ground of the political world, the common areas in which the conspiracy belief incur includes health and science. It is evident that political conspiracies have a positive influence on developing belief through "accepting medical conspiracies". Therefore, the selected article has reflected the fact of involvement of political influence. An effective "mitigate standard intervention" promoting vaccinations has been addressed for various stakeholders. It is developed that specific interventions target conspiracy beliefs which should be "considered during the pandemic". It includes the 'inoculation' method used. To support conspiracy theories, an individual's inclination to assign societal responsibility for events in which the group of people develop an acting ill intension leads to developing a conspiracies mentality. The higher engagement among the conspiracies beliefs has been contributed by political activities on exposing specific conspiracies. It is believed that the conspiracy group behind is too powerful, for political passivity. Henceforth, the article selected has focused on the conspiracy theories role in "shaping attitudes toward vaccinations" which has frequently been addressed (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). It is believed that the pandemic has triggered the population to uptake the vaccination. However, the conspiracy in this aspect has a draft attitude in the response to the pandemic threat epidemiologically. The “consequences of accepting conspiracy” beliefs include vaccination intentions as well as “willingness to undertake preventive” measures “pseudoscientific health practices”. However, psychological well-being along with some misguided behaviours have not been identified
Question 7
Main findings
Assessing the article study quality to research the findings, therefore, evaluation through critical appraisal tool using cross-sectional study CASP checklist has been initiated. This tool in determining the quality of the article selected for study help in reaching the authenticity, reliability and validity of the research (cebma.org, 2014). To develop the accuracy of the study, a statistical analysis has been performed. To scale the conspiracy level among the Poland user with the generic, anxiety and e-health literary, the participants involved in the study have been analysed with a scaling that ranges from 1 to 5. The author has developed a main finding by developing study group characteristics with an exploratory analysis of the population. Confirmatory factor analysis with the application of logistics brings that Covid 19 vaccine. It is revealed from the selected article that the Polish version of CFA with the VCBS version includes a “good fitting model” of the “measurement model” in a scale “one-factor model” needs to be. CDMR has however commented the CDMR that reaches higher values (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). Different companionship has been regulated that build effective and productive using social media get influenced by unauthenticated news. The result revealed that e-health literacy has surprisingly regulated in developing the vaccination status.
Conspiracy theory underlying human behaviour which is not unusual on the ground of the political world, the common areas in which the conspiracy belief incur includes health and science. According to Romer and Jamieson (2020), it is evident that political conspiracies have a positive influence on developing belief through "accepting medical conspiracies". Therefore, the selected article has reflected the fact of involvement of political influence. An effective "mitigate standard intervention" promoting vaccinations has been addressed for various stakeholders. It is developed that specific interventions target conspiracy beliefs which should be "considered during the pandemic". It includes the 'inoculation' method used. To support conspiracy theories, an individual's inclination to assign societal responsibility for events in which the group of people develop an acting ill intension leads to developing a conspiracies mentality. Therefore the result from the article eventually involved developing an intervention that provides the vaccine recommendation. It eventually leads to developing an understanding that measures the counteract part of a conspiracy with the help of the inoculation theory (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). Therefore, from the CASP tool, the evaluation of the result and the maintaining findings reflect the ongoing effective and measurable outcomes.
The practical implication that has been identified helps in gathering information on the socio-political with the changes in the conspiracy belief within the society. The traditional intervention has been effectively undertaken by health promotion. It gives a significant impact on healthcare professionals bat and patient communication has been prevalent in the misinformation that leads to the development of conspiracy beliefs (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). On the other hand, as suggested by Wirawan et al. (2021), conspiracy theories underlying human behaviour which is not unusual on the ground of the political world. The common areas in which the conspiracy belief incur includes health and science. It is evident that political conspiracies have a positive influence on developing belief through “accepting medical conspiracies”. Therefore, the selected article has reflected the fact of involvement of political influence.
Question 8
Evaluating the article selection for reviewing and collecting information for the critical appraisal tool helps in developing an accurate and reliable selection of the article for study. CASP tools have been predominantly used to identify the reliability of the arteries (cebma.org, 2014). The author's conclusion in the paper is reliable as it is based on internal consistency within PL-VCBS and has been assessed on the basis of “The Cronbach α coefficient”. It is mentioned that assumed “good internal consistency” ahs have been evident in reflecting “values between 0.7 and 0.9” with “excellent internal consistency” by values>0.9. The selected article has even calculated a “Guttman split-half coefficient” which is promptly used in assuming the value of “at least 0.8 determines”. It is an adequate and effective tool for analysing the CASP tool for internal consistency (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). The “test-retest reliability” has been used as a temporal stability indicator of instruments. The instrument is calculated on the basis of the result and the findings that fill 50 respondents along with “twice at the interval of 2 weeks”. As stated by Eberhardt and Ling (2021), assessing the article's reliability for the authenticity of the work included the “mean and single-item” “interclass correlation coefficients” (ICC) assessed “two-way mixed model”. The guidelines take has mean “ICCs value<0.40 indicates poor”, “0.40–0.59 fair”, “0.60–0.74 well”, and “0.75- 1.00” excellent stability. Therefore, the floor that affects the ceiling has been assessed on the basis of respondents' percentage who prominently received a “score of 7 and 49 points”, respectively (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). The adequacy sample size on “a number of items” has been analyzed through “Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test”.
The value has been expected at least reach the 0.7 value that to confirm the sample size adequacy. As opined by Simione et al. (2021), the data factorability has been assessed with “Barlett’s test of sphericity”. Therefore, the reliability drafted on the validity of the construction through hypothesis testing of PL-VCBS. We assessed the correlation between PL-VCBS and GCBS scores. We have also checked if there is a correlation between PL-VCBS and HL score, expecting no significant correlation (Kowalska-Duplaga and Duplaga, 2023). Confirmatory factor analysis with the application of logistics brings that Covid 19 vaccine. It is revealed from the selected article that the Polish version of CFA with the VCBS version includes a “good fitting model” of the “measurement model” in a scale “one-factor model” needs to be. CDMR has however commented the CDMR that reaches higher values. It is developed that specific interventions target conspiracy beliefs which should be "considered during the pandemic". Therefore, it is analysed through the CASP tool that it has supported the hypothesis which is actively rooted for its empowerment of the thesis that actively then misinformation through which the actively empower the public health issue with intensive activities.
Reference
Selected Article
Kowalska-Duplaga, K. and Duplaga, M., 2023. The association of conspiracy beliefs and the uptake of COVID-19 vaccination: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 23(1), pp.1-16.
Other Journals
Boutron, I., Page, M.J., Higgins, J.P., Altman, D.G., Lundh, A., Hróbjartsson, A. and Cochrane Bias Methods Group, 2019. Considering bias and conflicts of interest among the included studies.Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions, pp.177-204.
Doyle, L., McCabe, C., Keogh, B., Brady, A. and McCann, M., 2020. An overview of the qualitative descriptive design within nursing research.Journal of Research in Nursing,25(5), pp.443-455.
Dreyer, N.A., Macedo, A.F. and Velentgas, P., 2019. Primary Data Collection for Pharmacoepidemiology.Pharmacoepidemiology, pp.342-354.
Eberhardt, J. and Ling, J., 2021. Predicting COVID-19 vaccination intention using protection motivation theory and conspiracy beliefs.Vaccine,39(42), pp.6269-6275.
Farrah, K., Young, K., Tunis, M.C. and Zhao, L., 2019. Risk of bias tools in systematic reviews of health interventions: an analysis of PROSPERO-registered protocols.Systematic reviews,8(1), pp.1-9.
Franzitta, V., Longo, S., Sollazzo, G., Cellura, M. and Celauro, C., 2020. Primary data collection and environmental/energy audit of hot mix asphalt production.Energies,13(8), p.2045.
Jennings, W., Stoker, G., Bunting, H., Valgarðsson, V.O., Gaskell, J., Devine, D., McKay, L. and Mills, M.C., 2021. Lack of trust, conspiracy beliefs, and social media use predict COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy.Vaccines,9(6), p.593.
Kahalon, R., Klein, V., Ksenofontov, I., Ullrich, J. and Wright, S.C., 2022. Mentioning the sample’s country in the article’s title leads to bias in research evaluation.Social Psychological and Personality Science,13(2), pp.352-361.
Lester, J.N., Cho, Y. and Lochmiller, C.R., 2020. Learning to do qualitative data analysis: A starting point.Human Resource Development Review,19(1), pp.94-106.
Manchanda, R.K., Miglani, A., Chakraborty, M., Meena, B.S., Sharma, K., Gupta, M., Sharma, A., Chadha, V., Rani, P., Singh, R.K. and Rutten, L., 2022. Impact of bias in data collection of COVID-19 cases.Homeopathy,111(01), pp.057-065.
Mehrabi, N., Morstatter, F., Saxena, N., Lerman, K. and Galstyan, A., 2021. A survey on bias and fairness in machine learning.ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR),54(6), pp.1-35.
Mohamed, Y., Khan, F.F., Haydarov, K. and Elhoseiny, M., 2022. It is okay to not be okay: Overcoming emotional bias in affective image captioning by contrastive data collection. InProceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition(pp. 21263-21272).
Ren, L.L., Wang, Y.M., Wu, Z.Q., Xiang, Z.C., Guo, L., Xu, T., Jiang, Y.Z., Xiong, Y., Li, Y.J., Li, X.W. and Li, H., 2020. Identification of a novel coronavirus causing severe pneumonia in human: a descriptive study.Chinese medical journal,133(09), pp.1015-1024.
Romer, D. and Jamieson, K.H., 2020. Conspiracy theories as barriers to controlling the spread of COVID-19 in the US.Social science & medicine,263, p.113356.
Simione, L., Vagni, M., Gnagnarella, C., Bersani, G. and Pajardi, D., 2021. Mistrust and beliefs in conspiracy theories differently mediate the effects of psychological factors on propensity for COVID-19 vaccine.Frontiers in psychology,12, p.683684.
Wirawan, G.B.S., Mahardani, P.N.T.Y., Cahyani, M.R.K., Laksmi, N.L.P.S.P. and Januraga, P.P., 2021. Conspiracy beliefs and trust as determinants of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in Bali, Indonesia: Cross-sectional study.Personality and Individual Differences,180, p.110995.
Yang, Z., Luo, X. and Jia, H., 2021. Is it all a conspiracy? Conspiracy theories and people’s attitude to COVID-19 vaccination.Vaccines,9(10), p.1051.
