“Homeostasis”, is a biological process within the human systems, which maintains stability and is self-regulating while adjusting to the environmental conditions, which is optimal for survival. It is an essential process, the success of which is important for survival. The stability that the homeostasis obtained is a dynamic equilibrium, where constant changes happen in relation to uniform conditions. In the case of humans, it is a condition where optimal functioning of the organs is achieved by factoring in other variables. These variables include body fluid balance, body temperature, the concentration of other ions, blood sugar levels, and PH of other extracellular fluids among others. An example of homeostasis is the maintaining of the temperature of room air conditioning systems, by the action of a regulator or thermostat.
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There are various mechanisms for maintaining the body temperature through the process of homeostasis. At first, a signal was sent to the effector from the sensor present in the skin. The nerves of the ‘medulla oblongata’ of the brain receive chemical signals through the sensory nerves received through the sensors, which then distribute the messages to the autonomic nervous system along the efferent or motor nerves, and activate a different set of effector organs, whose activity is consequently changed to manage the stability in the human body (Albert-Bayo et al. 2019). In the case of hemostasis control by sweating, the effectors that maintain stability in the body temperature receive signals from sensors present in the skin and send signals to the hypothalamus of the brain.
3.0 Factors behind homeostasis
There are various factors that effects homeostasis, including the core temperature of the body, the level of blood glucose, iron, and copper levels in the body, the oxygen level in the blood, arterial blood pressure, potassium, sodium, and calcium levels in the body, balance of body fluids, pH of the blood, human neuroendocrine systems, genome-related issues among others.
When the core body temperature falls, the supply of blood to the skin is reduced as a result of ‘vasoconstriction’ (Lorenzo et al. 2019). This leads to the concentration of warmth towards the venous blood circulation circuits, at the body's core. Thus, minimal heat loss from extreme cold weather happens. The level of blood glucose is another crucial factor. A lower level of blood glucose results in the stopping of insulin secretion from beta cells of pancreatic islets. Thus, glucogen is then secreted from the alpha blood cells (Ruder et al. 2019). Thus, the liver promotes the conversion of glycogen into glucose and releases the fatty acids into adipose tissues. There are other factors that are involved in the regulation of homeostasis, were need to be addressed.
4.0 Significance of homeostasis for cell survival
The process of homeostasis is essentially required for human survival. This process plays a crucial role in the functioning of the body. This process helps to maintain the core temperature of the human body by the methods of thermoregulation, osmoregulation, and chemical regulation. This process helps humans to survive in extreme weather conditions of cold and heat (Fetoni et al. 2019). If the cells are exposed to a cold temperature, it will result in the process of ‘vasoconstriction’, and the circulation of blood concentration moves towards the venous blood circulation circuits, at the body's core. Thus, it will maintain the stability of the cell temperature. In maintaining the body temperature the nervous system plays an important role (Neves et al. 2019). The sensors present on the cells of body's skin, send signals according to the external environment which is received in the hypothalamus region of the brain. Failing of the homeostasis process can lead to the ineffectiveness of procedures that maintain the stability of body temperature, and have serious consequences.
1B: Homeostatic feedback mechanism
The feedback mechanism of homeostasis is interesting and needs for deeper investigation. A feedback cycle is defined as a situation, in which the level of impact of variables that directed the change of variables, and regulation of variables in a structured process happens (Toor et al. 2019). There are two feedback loops that can be described properly, those are positive and negative feedback loops. In the case of the positive feedback loop, a deviation from the standard biological processes leads to further destabilization of the normal condition and has disastrous consequences. This phenomenon is very rare in biological systems, as it tends to produce more unstable and harmful conditions (Palmer et al. 2019). When there is a variation of temperature in the external environment, the sensors present in the skin, which are also known as receptors, detect it and send the signal to the hypothalamus region of the brain. However, instead of stabilizing the situation by redirecting the blood flow toward the ventral core of the human body, it results in an uncontrolled condition. This is because the inputs activate chemical mechanisms, which further amplify the conditions (Matthews et al. 2019). For example, when the body gets wounded and needs the blood to be clotted, it uses positive feedback mechanisms, it is also followed by the body in the stage of childbirth.
The negative feedback mechanisms are more often followed by the hemostasis process. In the case of the negative feedback loop, the signals which are sent by receptors to the different body system controlling parts, and the response reduces the excessive changes within a normal range (Stolp et al. 2020). Blood vessels get constricted to conserve heat when the body temperature falls. There is no secretion of fluids from the sweat glands. This results in the involuntary contraction of muscles or ‘shivering’ and it generates heat for the warming of the body (Maares et al. 2020). When the body temperature rises, blood vessels get dilated, which results in the heat loss of the body to the environment. During this process, the sweat gland secretes fluid (Kim et al. 2020). And, as the secreted fluid evaporates into the environment, the body gets cooled down in a steady manner. In the first case, heat is retained within the body, and in the second case, the heat gets released into the environment.
1C: Table
List the conditions for which homeostasis is disrupted and how they are altered (decreased/increased) during marathon
Change detected by
Effectors involved and how do they receive messages
Response
Hormones involved and their role
What would happen if the response(s) did not occur in marathon runner
Body muscles
Rise in glycogen in the body mscles
Decreased insulin level in blood. Signal sends through chemical sensors.
Increased secretion of ADH hormone.
ADH hormone. It stimulates the chemical response to the muscle contraction and send it to the brain.
The runner may feel the affects of muscle cramp after the marathon, if not treated.
Kidney
Rise in serum creatinine in urine samples
Serum creatinine, uric acid, and urea. Through chemical sensors
Increased level of ADH hormone in the renal system
ADH hormone, it reduces the water scarcity in the renal system
The runner found that his/her kidneys' functions are damaged, and ketonuria, and dialysis of kidneys.
Liver
Increase secretion of fats by the liver
Regulation of pancreatic cells in secreting insulin, through chemical sensors
Increase level of insulin secretion into the blood vessels
ADH hormone, helps in the incresed production of glucose
The runner may face chronic fatty liver situation
Hypothalamus
Rise or fall in body temperature despite breaching optimum conditions
Chemical sensors, receives signals from skin and delivered it to the brain
Increased level of ADH in the peripheral blood vessels
ADH hormone, it protects the water level inside the blood vessels
The runner may fainted, in extreme cases may die
Osmoreceptors
Fall in water level or increased blood coagulation
Osmoreceptors chemical sensors. They send the signals to the brain.
Increased level of ADH secretion
ADH hormone, it binds with the osmoreceptors and sends signals to the brain
The runner may faint or die if not receive any water after the marathon.
Thermoreceptors
Increase in body heat after the marathon.
Chemical osmoreceptor sensors. They send the signals to the brain.
Increased level of ADH secretion
ADH hormone, it binds with the thermo receptors and sends signals to the brain
The runner may feel extreme heat, and sweat after the marathon.
1D: Explanation of conditions in the table after 30 minutes marathon
The runner may feel several physical complications after the marathon if the response system of the body fails to do its work after or during the marathon. The conditions a runner may face after the marathon was over is described in short below.
Body muscle function– If the chemical receptors fail to deliver the message of muscle contraction as a result of the marathon the runner may faint or sometimes die. A failed process of binding acetylcholine neurotransmitters to the receptors in the nervous system gave rise to this problem.
Kidney function– If there is a fall in water levels in the renal system of the runner and an increase in the uric acid, serum creatinine, and urea in the urine, then it should be concluded that there is a problem in the kidney function of the runner (Prahlad, 2020). The body responds by increasing the ADH hormone in the renal system. It helps to increase the water level in the renal system of the runner and helps to stabilize the situation. But, the runner needs water urgently.
Liver function– If the level of glucose in the blood increases as a result of decreased level of insulin hormone, it will lead to an alteration of liver function. The liver will convert glycogens to triglyceride molecules, or fat which are deposited in the adipose tissues. The body responds by increasing the level of ADH hormone in the blood vessels. Failure of which will lead to a fatty liver condition of the runner.
Hypothalamus function– The function of the hypothalamus in the brain is to receive all the chemical and other neural signals from different parts of the body and respond accordingly. In case of some difficulties in receiving signals from the surface of the skin and blood vessel difficulties, the body responds by increasing ADH secretion (Giacalone et al. 2020). It will help to increase the water level in blood vessels and help to stabilize the conditions. Failure of which will lead to serious condition for the runner.
Osmoreceptor function– These are chemical molecules, which monitor the level of water in blood vessels. These send signals to the hypothalamus of the brain and constantly monitor the water levels in the body. Any deviation from optimal condition would lead to a response from the body by increasing or decreasing the level of ADH hormone. This hormone binds with the osmoreceptors and sends the signal to the brain. The failure of an effective response by the body would lead to the fainting of the runner after the marathon.
Thermoreceptor functions– These are chemical molecules, mainly present on the surface of the body, or below the skin. They sense any changes in the external changes of temperature and send signals to the brain through the nervous system (Vasileiou et al. 2019). The body responds by increasing the level of ADH hormone, as the body temperature rises due to heavy exercise during the marathon. ADH hormone binds with the thermoreceptors and sends signals to the brain. Then the body takes appropriate action by increasing the rate of sweating and other means to stabilize the situation.
1E: poster about mechanisms of biological temperature control by the skin
The mechanism of biological control by the skin is deeply intertwined with the function of the nervous system. In the case of a cold external environment, the sensors present below the outer skin sense the change of temperature and send signals to the hypothalamus glands in the central nervous system in the brain. The hypothalamus then sends a response signal through the vasoconstrictor nerve of the cell. This leads to the increase of blood movement towards the core of the body. Hypothalamus also stimulates the secretion of the chemical ‘norepinephrine’. This chemical encourages heat production in the body. This whole process is known as ‘vasoconstriction’.
Figure 1: Mechanism of thermoregulation
In the case of a hot external environment, the sensors present below the outer skin sense the change of temperature and send signals to the hypothalamus glands in the ‘central nervous system (CNS)’ in the brain, the same as in the process of ‘vasoconstriction’. The hypothalamus, then sends signals through the vasodilator nerves toward the periphery of the body. As a result, blood vessels present below the surface of the skin began to dilate, in a process known as ‘vasodilation’. The sweat glands present on the skin also start producing more sweat, which evaporates into the air and helps to cool down the body temperature.
Figure 2: Flow diagram of thermoregulation in the human body
Task 2: Homeostasis controlling factors in the body
PART A:
Answer to question 1a)
The activities in the human body before and after a marathon, with a load of carbohydrate is described in the chart below.
Figure 3: Diagram of human body activities during a marathon
Answer to question 2b)
The link between carbohydrate loading and success in a marathon race–
“Carbohydrate loading” has a profound and positive impact on the performance of an athlete or marathon runner. This is because carbohydrate is a rich source of energy. It helps to increase the glucose level in the blood and helps the runner stay energized throughout the marathon. By carbohydrate loading and to get the optimal amount of stored glycogen in the muscle, the runs should be predetermined and optimally loaded. It is suggested by dieticians that they eat 7-10 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight to prepare themselves before the start of the run (Blaner, 2019). The increased level of glucose helps by increasing the level of glycogen synthesis in the liver and produces adequate energy which will help the runner to get a boost before the run. The runners are suggested to eat 5 to 6 grams of carbohydrates per pound of diet practice it throughout the day and practice it for at least 7 days. An athlete weighing 150 pounds must eat almost 750 grams of carbohydrates in a day of his/her diet. The increasing level of glycogen in the body muscle would help the athlete to feel less tired after the marathon and perform more competitively.
PART B:
Answer to question 3)
Estrogen concentration and homeostasis feedback–
The increase in estrogen concentration with that of increasing synthesis of ‘luteinizing hormone (LH)’ is an example of a positive feedback loop. By this mechanism, the pituitary gonadotropes and GnRH cells of the brain produce a large amount of ‘gonadotropins’ and GnRH. This leads to the essential process of ovulation. Various studies suggested that positive feedback is a mechanism that is time-delayed and a surge in LH hormone secretion several hours after ovariectomized ewes were injected with this hormone (Gromadzka et al. 2020). The surge in the secretion of LH is deeply linked with the secretion of estrogen. This pathway has been using an indirect pathway that involves the modulation of ER alpha-expressing neurons, which is directly linked with GnRH neurons. Different scientific studies indicate that the dominant populations of ER alpha-expressing neuronal molecules to GnRH neurons reside in the median preoptic, anteroventral periventricular. The neurons are also called as ‘rostral periventricular area of third ventricle (RP3V)’. When a baby is born, it results in increasing pressure on the cervix. This pressure stimulates the receptor cells and then sends a chemical signal to the brain. This process will allow an increased amount of oxytocin release (Zhao et al. 2019). This secreted oxytocin diffuses to the cervix via blood, where it is concentrated more thoroughly. So, it can be said as a positive feedback loop as this process helps in the process of childbirth.
Figure 4: The childbirth as a result of a positive feedback loop
Task 3: The role of the nervous system
The answer of question 1a)
Receptor– Receptors are protein molecules that, sense the incoming chemical or protein signals coming from the nervous system and respond according to that. These molecules had a crucial role to play in the process of homeostasis. When receptors sense an incoming stimulus signal, it forward the signal to the nucleus of the cells of the nervous system, which generates a range of responses from the human system (Kruk et al. 2019). The nucleus determines the appropriate response to the stimulus. The signal then encounters the effector molecules. These can be tissues, organs, other cells, and different structures, which receive signals for homeostasis. One example of the receptor is ‘cutaneous receptors’ present in the skin. These skin receptors detect changes in the external environment temperature. If the external temperature drops drastically or rises above the equilibrium of the body, it starts to respond (Scherer et al. 2021). The control center, in this case, the hypothalamus glands in the brain, sends signals to the sweat glands and blood vessels present just below our skin. The human system responds accordingly. If the external environmental temperature becomes too cold, the process of ‘vasoconstriction’ begins and enables the body to retain heat, to maintain an equilibrium of temperature at the body’s core. This is done by the secretion of the chemical ‘norepinephrine’ by the hypothalamus, which produces heat in the body to increase the body temperature. If the external environment becomes too hot, the blood vessels present below the skin surface, start to dilate in a process known as ‘vasodilation’ (Prahlad, 2020). This causes the temperature of the body at its core to drop and reach equilibrium. Sweat glands present in the skin surface also start producing more volume of sweat, which helps in the process of vasodilation.
Answer to question 1b)
Summary diagram of different parts of the nervous system in relation to homeostasis
Figure 5:Summary diagram of different parts of the nervous system in relation to homeostasis
The answer of question 2a)
Norepinephrine pyrogens hypothalamus PGE2
When, a tuberculosis patient fights the pathogenic bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis to safeguard his/her body, the immune system of the human body. The immune cells of MHC class I or MHC class II systems bind to mainly the cell wall of Mycobacterium. This produces inflammatory molecules of ‘cytokines’. Some of these cytokines are ‘pyrogenic’ molecules and induce fever, or increase the body temperature. This is done by the secretion of ‘prostaglandin 2 (PGE2)’ molecules by the immune system. PGE2 acts on the thermoregulatory neurons of the hypothalamus of the brain system (Albert-Bayo et al. 2019). PGE2 helps the hypothalamus to think that the body temperature is still at the equilibrium level of 370 C, but this is not the case at that time. This helps the rise of body temperature. In this way, the prostaglandin molecules impact the hypothalamus part of the brain, which acts as the ‘thermostat’ for the body. Fever-reducing medications work by suppressing the PGE2 synthesis by the immune system and thereby cooling the temperature (Lee et al. 2022). Examples of these medications are aspirin, ibuprofen, and others.
The answer of question 2b)
Brain damage as a result of abnormal heart rate
During any exercise process, the heart rate of an athlete increases. But, after the sport is over, the rate slowly goes back to normal. If the normal process gets blocked as a result of defects in the heart, it will lead to brain damage and, in some cases brain stroke. The main parts of the brain that will be damaged are the parts where the central nerves coming from different organs or parts of the body get attached to the brain (Forsythe, 2019). These brain portions include the hypothalamic-pituitary gland axis in the hypothalamus portion of the brain. As the hypothalamus acts as the thermostat of the body and helps in maintaining the body temperature, it would have some serious consequences. The damage would lead to symptoms like extreme fatigue or dizziness, fainting, bounding pulse, acute chest pain, and shortness of breath among others.
The answer of question 3)
Multiple Sclerosis– Multiple sclerosis is a disabling disease, which deeply involves the function of the spinal cord, brain, and nervous system in the body. In this particular disease, the immune system of the body attacks the myelin sheath, which is a protective sheath of the nerve fibers (Alves de Lima et al. 2020). The damage of the myelin sheath results in communication problems between the brain and nerve fibers coming from different parts of the body.
The process of myelin sheath destruction, along with the initiation of the disease ‘of multiple sclerosis’ is described in the diagram below.
Figure 6: Diagram showing the steps leading to multiple sclerosis
Figure 7: Picture describing the building process of multiple sclerosis
The occurrence of multiple sclerosis leads to the difficulty in muscle movements in the body. The symptoms of multiple sclerosis involve tingling, numbness or weakness in the limbs, lack of coordination with other nearby people, the appearance of double vision for a longer time, slurred speech, cognitive problems, and mood disturbances among others.
In a normal person, the nerve impulse is generated by the chemical or electrical changes in neurons, as a result of different signals sent by the sensors (Nutma et al. 2020). There is an extensive presence of sodium ions on the exterior side of the nerve cell membrane and therefore the charge is positive, and the charge in the interior side is negative as a result of the presence of potassium ions. When a nerve impulse is generated, the change of permeability of the cell membrane is observed. The two ions get exchanged to the other side of the cell membrane, which results in cell depolarization. This leads to the movement of a nerve impulse along the axon (Labetoulle et al. 2019). At the end of the axon fiber, the impulses encounter chemicals, known as ‘neurotransmitters’. Which then helps in further transportation of the signal. In multiple sclerosis patients, the chemicals of the immune system attach in place of neurotransmitters, which blocks the further progression of the signal.
Answer to question 4a)
Neurotransmitters– Neurotransmitters are signaling molecules, that are secreted by neurons in the nervous system, and affect another cell. The receiving cells may be any body parts, any targeted organs, or other neuron cells within the nervous system (Vandebroek, 2020). Neurotransmitters interact with their targetted cells by attaching to the receptor molecules present in that cell. The main neurotransmitter attached to the mental status, or mood of a person is ‘serotonin’.
Depression in relation to serotonin– Serotonin is a neurotransmitter molecule, that transports messages from one part of the brain to another part, within the nervous system. Almost all estimated 40 million brain cells are directly or indirectly associated with serotonin. Most of these cells include those controlling mood, memory, apatite, learning, and social behavior among others. This attraction of other cells in different body parts or different nerve cells to the neurotransmitters is known as ‘synaptic transmission’ (Gromadzka et al. 2020). Due to the involvement of neurotransmitters, the process can also be called chemical synaptic transmission. The role of serotonin in controlling depression is analyzed by ‘tryptophan depletion’ studies. In this process, an acute manipulation of diet was carried out, which will reduce the amount of serotonin activity in the brain, as a result of the precursor amino acid, tryptophan. In normal persons, this tryptophan and serotonin deficiency does not produce clinically significant results, but in patients of depression, it shows an increase in the symptoms of depression clinically (Kim et al. 2019). The experiment shows that the depletion of tryptophan availability has a crucial role to play in increasing the severity of depression. Serotonin helps in the regeneration of brain cells, which the depression hampers. It also transports chemical signals between different parts of the brain, the shortage of this chemical could lead to symptoms of depression. Thus, serotonin has an important relation with that of depression.
The answer to question 4b)
Tubocurarine– Tubocurarine is a neuromuscular blocking agent, which is non-depolarizing. It is a derivative of ‘benzylisoquinoline’. It is a blocking agent that acts on neuromuscular joints, and acts by blocking the activity of ‘acetylcholine’. It implicates a reversible competitive antagonistic effect on the post-synaptic acetylcholine nicotinic receptors and reduces the probability of activation of these receptors. They act on the receptors present at the ‘motor end plate’ of the neuromuscular junction. As a result, the relaxation of skeletal muscle happens. The mechanism of action involves the competition between acetylcholine and tubocurarine to attach to the same site of the nicotinic receptors. So, the disturbance of acetylcholine binding to the receptors at the neuromuscular junction, stops the effective movement of muscle, causing the phenomenon of paralysis (Mahmoud et al. 2019). Doctors and surgeons used this tubocurarine drugs to produce muscle relaxation during operations. It is also used in the treatment of muscle spasms, to treat the immobile muscles associated with sprains, injuries of the back, and strains, among others. It is also used to control the hyperactivity of skeletal muscles.
Figure 8: The mechanism of action of tubocurarine drugs
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