Introduction - Methods for Evaluating Capacitive Pressure Gauges
The study focuses on the designing, testing, and performing prediction. In the discussion part, task 1a, part a will state the process or methods for testing the accuracy of an electronics thermometer. In task 1a, part b software analysis will be done where output of the voltage of a thermistor will be measured using Tina-Ti. Apart from this, in task 1a, part c comparison of the two methods will be done. It will give a clear analysis of the method. Furthermore, in task 1b, behaviour of the capacitor gauge will be stated. However, task 2 will state the analysis of the system performance that employs electronic control. Recommendation will be provided for improving the existing design. Lastly, various methods for changing the direction of the wind turbines will be analyzed.
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a)Practically testing the accuracy of an electronic thermometer
The ice bath test is the most useful procedure for determining the precision of the electronic thermometer (Mah et al. 2021). In the event that now the thermometers would only indicate a temperature of 32°F or even less, the ice bath testing is the simplest method for determining its correctness. This approach has the benefit that, irrespective of elevation or air pressure, a reliable thermometer will always register 32°F in a properly constructed ice bath. In contrast, all that is needed to make an ice bath is a tall glass, ice cubes, which was before water, as well as a spoon for twirling the water and ice. The ice maker in the refrigerators produces ice cubes instead of crushed ice, which seems to function better. The techniques for determining the electronic thermometer's precision are also covered at this time. Ice cubes must first be piled high in a large glass. Immediately beneath the surface of the ice, pour in which was before water. For around fifteen seconds, stir. Put the thermometer stalk or probe 2 inches through the middle of the ice bath immediately, and gently mix for an additional 15 seconds while continually moving the stem so that it is covered by ice cubes. 32°F would be displayed on an appropriate thermometer. The thermometer shouldn't rest even against ice since such an action will result in a low reading. Additionally, avoid resting the thermometer just on glass to prevent receiving another high reading (Qu et al. 2019). Avoid taking a measurement of the fresh water underneath the ice since it could not be 32°F. Whenever assessing the practical precision of such an electronic thermometer, all such points must be extremely obvious.
The boiling test is indeed an alternative technique. Although compared to the ice bath testing, this phase is more challenging. This is true because while determining the boiling point for just a particular place, the user should take airflow and height into consideration. Under typical atmospheric circumstances, a thermometer in boiling water at sea level would register 212°F.
b)Tina-Ti software
Using the Tina-Ti software, circuit design of the thermistor is done. In this part, analysis of dc is performed monitoring the temperature value between 0 degree Celsius and 100 degree Celsius.
i)Circuit design of thermistor
Figure 1: Circuit design of thermistor
The circuit design of the thermistor is shown in the above figure. There are two types of thermistor, one is the PTC, and the other one is the NTC. For the current design NTC thermistor was chosen. The reason behind selecting NTC thermistor over PTC is, inrush current compensators as well as temperature monitoring are two common uses for NTC thermistors, whereas self-resetting overcurrent regulators but also self-regulating heating devices are used for PTC thermistors (Munifah and Aminudin, 2019). However, NTC as well as PTC resistance are indeed the two kinds that are acceptable for users. NTC thermistors have a reduction throughout resistance yet when temperature goes up, in contrast to PTC thermistors, which undergo an increase in resistance when temperature increases. Moreover, NTC thermistors are utilized as ICLs to quickly and efficiently safeguard circuit design of electrical as well as electronic equipment from inrush currents (Ananthi et al. 2019).
For designing the circuit, three resistance, R1, R2, and R3 are considered where, value of R1 is 1.37k, R2 is 2.87k, and R3 is 2.87k. Furthermore, the value of Vdd is 3.3.V. Through this, temperature and dc analysis will be performed.
Figure 2: Analysis of temperature
The above figure shows the analysis of the temperature. It is important to state the value of the temperature, as based on this, the graph will be shown. As per the given value of temperature, the starting temperature is 0 degree celsius, and the ending temperature is 100 degree celsius (Tao et al. 2022). With the same value, dc analysis will also be monitored here. After given the value of the temperature, the graph will be obtained between voltage and temperature.
Figure 3: Graph showing the temperature
The graph of the temperature is shown in the above figure. After putting the value of the temperature the graph of temperature is shown. The graph that is obtained in the above figure, is based on the value between 0 degree celsius and 100 degree celsius. The graph is shown between the voltage and temperature (Labrado et al. 2019). Through the graph it can be stated that as the temperature increases the voltage simultaneously gets increased. This indicated that voltage and temperature are directly proportional to each other. The increase in the temperature also points that the value of the resistance has decreased. In this graph, when the temperature is zero, the voltage is -5.10 V.
Figure 4: Analysis of temperature
The above figure shows the analysis of the temperature. Here, the temperature value is set likewise starting temperature is 0 degree Celsius, and end temperature is 115 degree Celsius.
Figure 5: Graph showing the temperature
The above figure shows the graph for the temperature between 0 degree Celsius and 115 degree Celsius. If the temperate value is increased from 100 to 115 degree Celsius then the graph obtaining here, is exceeding the value that is 100 degree Celsius.
Figure 6: Analysis of temperature
The above figure shows the analysis of the temperature. For understanding the nature of the graph, the starting value of the temperature is changed to 25 degree celsius. But the end temperature remained the same, 100 degree celsius (Galal, 2020). Through the different values of the temperature the nature of the graph can be studied and it will also allow us to monitor the system very well. It is obvious that as the temperature value is increased there will be a change in the nature of the graph. It is necessary for monitoring the system properly. The graph between voltage and temperature will be produced when the temperature value is provided.
Figure 7: Graph showing the temperature
The graph of the temperature is shown in the above figure. The temperature graph is displayed after entering the value of the temperature. Based on a temperature range of 25 degrees Celsius to 100 degrees Celsius, the graph shown in the previous picture was created. Voltage and temperature are displayed on a graph (Krause, 2021). With the help of the graph, it is clear that when the temperature rises, the voltage also rises. This demonstrated that the relationship between temperature and voltage is direct. The increase in the temperature also points that the value of the resistance has decreased. In this graph, when the temperature is 25.00, the voltage is -4.90 V.
After stating the temperature value the dc analysis is done.
Figure 8: Characteristics of DC transfer
The above figure shows the characteristics of the dc transfer. Here, R1 acts as an input based on which the dc analysis is being done (Petre et al. 2020). The starting value of the R1 is 0 ohm whereas the ending value of the R1 is 1 ohm.
Figure 9: Graph showing the result of DC
The above figure shows the graph of the dc result. The graph is obtained based on the R1 value. The graph shows the relation of voltage versus input resistance (Mourtzis, 2020). The graph shows that voltage and input resistance is directly proportional. The nature of the graph obtained is linear.
Figure 10: Characteristics of DC transfer
The above figure shows the characteristics of the dc transfer. Here, R1 acts as an input based on which the dc analysis is being done (Wang et al. 2022). The starting value of the R1 is 2 ohm whereas the ending value of the R1 is 5 ohm. After the input value, the graph will be obtained through which the nature of the graph and the characteristics of dc would be easily analyzed.
Figure 11: Graph showing the result of DC
The above figure shows the graph of the dc result. Here, the graph shows the relation between the voltage and input resistance (Rodenas-Herraiz et al. 2019). The input resistances considered based on which the graph is being obtained is R1. But the starting and ending value changes are 2 ohm and 5 ohm. The nature of the graph seems to be linear. When the value of input resistance is 2.00 then the voltage is above -5.02.
Figure 12: Characteristics of DC transfer
The above figure shows the characteristics of the dc transfer. Here, R2 acts as an input based on which the dc analysis is being done (Palma Carmona, 2019). The starting value of the R1 is 0 ohm whereas the ending value of the R1 is 1 ohm.
Figure 13: Graph showing the result of DC
Graph showing the result of dc is indicated in the above figure. The input resistance for the graph is R2. For analyzing the dc characteristics, the starting value of R2 is 0 ohm, and end value is 1 ohm. The relation of voltage and input resistance are shown in the above figure. However, the nature of the graph here is also linear (Stanojevic, 2019). Through the graph it can be contemplated that when the voltage of the circuit increases the inspire resistance increases simultaneously. However, when the value of the input resistance R2 is 0.00 ohm, the voltage obtained is above -4.60 V.
Advantages and disadvantages of practical testing and simulations
Advantages of practical testing and simulation
Practical testing
Practical testing is not complex.
It is a cost-effective method.
Detecting the errors out of the code.
Simulation
It could be used to identify barriers to the data flow, ideas, and things.
The most important elements that impact system performance may be better understood (Wang et al. 2022).
Without actually experimenting only with equipment, simulation enables us to examine hypothetical situations and problems.
Disadvantages of practical testing and simulation
Practical testing
Practical testing is quite time consuming.
Errors cannot be detected properly.
Accuracy of the system may not be obtained.
Simulation
However accurate the evaluation is depends on the model's efficiency or the modeller's skills, both of which require significant training.
It's a pricey and time-consuming operation.
Building a simulation is costly, and interpreting the results of the simulation can occasionally be challenging.
After comparing both of the methods, it can be said that both of the methods are important for developing the system. As it will aid to predict the errors and accuracy of the end result.
Task 1b
a) Interpreting the behaviour of a capacitive pressure gauge
Capacitive pressure gauge is the process of measuring pressure by identifying differences in electrical capacitance, developed by a specific diaphragm movement (Wang et al. 2022). This process follows the principle of a capacitor consisting of two similitude conducting pallets diverged by a small void as shown in the below figure.
The capacitance would alter in direct proportion to any fluctuation within each of the parameters (Lin et al. 2020). The width is the most straightforward to manage. This can be achieved by turning either one or multiple of the panels into a diaphragm that reacts to pressure fluctuations.
Usually, one circuit is a fixed electrode while another one is a pressure-sensitive diaphragm. On the right is a picture of a capacitive pressure gauge.
Making the capacitance gauge a component of a resonant circuit, which commonly consists of a capacitive sensor and an inductor, is a simple technique to measure the variation in capacitance (Hsieh et al. 2022). This may alter the oscillator's amplitude or the resonating circuit's AC resonance.
Figure 14: Capacitive pressure sensor
Function: Integrating the sensors in a frequency-dependent loop, for example, an oscillator or an LC tank circuit will allow users to quantify the variation in a capacitor (Liu et al. 2022). In both scenarios, the capacitance will oscillate with pressure, changing the circuit's vibration. A power source & certain more electronic components are needed for an oscillator. Without a dedicated power supply, a resonating LC circuit could be utilized as an inactive sensor. Issues can also come from the dielectric permittivity of the substance between the panels changing due to force or heat (Lao et al. 2022). This will somewhat enhance the capacitance variation with pressure because the transmittance of air & the majority of other gases rise with pressure. Pressure measurement sensors, whose plates are separated by a vacuum, thus behave accordingly with respect.
Figure 15: Capacitive pressure sensor
There are three pressure sensors categorized in the primary measurement modes,
Absolute
Gauge
Differential
Other than the Gauge method two different methods can be implied to create a pressure sensor for electrical circuitry. In the absolute pressure sensor, a vacuum or zero is defined as the reference point. One portion of the sensor is uncovered in the middle position to measure & the other side is closed to create a proper effect on the vacuum.
It's not always required to be aware of a gas's or liquids absolute pressure. Instead, all that is required to be understood is the ratio between any two components of the system, which is under watch. Users can use variable pressure sensors in these circumstances.
With the divergent pressure sensor, one may compare two places and get a measurement. After and before a switch in a pipe can be one illustration. The pressure from both ends should be equal if the valve is completely open. If users notice a discrepancy in force, there may be an obstruction or a partially open valve (Qu et al. 2019). “Differential pressure sensors” are frequently sold in packages with two connections for connecting pipes.
b) Voltmeter model
As voltmeters are mainly connected to the panel under the test with many components or a single component, any electricity under the voltmeter will distribute the overall electricity in the previously tested circuit (Khan et al. 2020). Here the voltage is being affected which is being measured at the end. The definition of a flawless voltmeter consists of infinite resistance, thus it lost its possibility to spread electricity under test from the circuit. Hereby perfect voltmeters only exist in the textbooks not in reality as is assumed.
Figure 16: Voltage Circuit
A voltmeter is an instrument or gadget that helps to measure the voltage or specific variations by the terminals or the endpoints of a wire or through an electronic device. Every time users connect the voltmeter parallels, the antagonism should be the same as infinity. As there will be no change in the electricity or the same voltage all over the present circuit. Thus high resistance will no longer lead to electricity, for that situation the flow of electricity for an ideal voltmeter would be Zero (Hsieh et al. 2022). Voltmeters with electronic actions are frequently rated in the "ohms per volt" category to indicate how much the movement's consumption levels may affect the circuit. Due to the fact that these meters depend on various multiplier's equivalent resistance to provide various measurement ranges, actual lead-to-lead impedances will vary based on the frequency that they are set to. Instead of being rated in "ohms per volt" sensitivity. Instead of being rated in "ohms per volt" sensitivity.
A voltage divider that divides 24 volts across sections of 23.1111 volts and 0.8889 volts, correspondingly, has resistance values of 250 M and 9.615 M. The voltmeter will display 0.8889 volts because it is a component of the 9.615 M resistance.
The voltmeter is now limited to showing the voltage it is connected to. It has no means of "knowing" that, prior to being linked from downstream 250 M resistor, a voltage of 12 volts had been dumped across it. The voltmeter just has to be linked to the circuit for it to be part of it. The robust modulus of a potential divider circuit is influenced by the voltmeter's resistance, which would in turn alter the voltage getting sensed.
The resistance on a perfect voltmeter is limitless. It will therefore obviously stop the current. Voltmeters are set up parallel to one another. However, in a parallel circuit, the current picks a channel of low resistance (Liu et al. 2022). Zero current is drawn from the circuit by a perfect voltmeter. In other words, when users connect this in series, it acts more like a resistance than a voltmeter, because the voltage throughout its endpoints is what the voltmeter reads. Therefore, one can simply compute the resistor of a series circuit using the voltmeter's impedance. Voltmeters are mainly carriers of “infinite internal resistance” primarily and sufficiently large resistance, thus it is both connected in a series. For that reason a small flow of electricity may flow or zero current will be released from that. Since there is no electricity flow, the voltmeter will only display the voltage of the battery that is connected across.
Task 2
a) Analytic techniques for analyzing the system performance
Soft Computing Technique: Soft Computing Technique (SC technique) is a type of analytical technique that consists of a bunch of computational techniques which are mostly based on natural selection and artificial intelligence (Khan et al. 2020). These give a fast and cost-effective solution to highly complex problems. SC technique can be categorized into three components, viz. “Artificial Neural Network (ANN)”, Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Algorithms. The major characteristics of the SC techniques are the non-requirement of mathematical modeling for problem solving, supply of various solutions for an issue of one input every now and then, utilization of biological methodologies such as evolution, genetics, particles etc. and adaptation to nature. [Referred to Appendix 2]
Analysis of a system from the example using SC technique: The electronics company has a wide range of products which can be analyzed by the analytical technique. In this task, an electronic goods such as a refrigerator has been taken for the performance analysis. The vapour compression refrigeration system of a refrigerator has been analyzed in this task. ANN of the SC technique has been used to interact among neurons via axon connection. The weighted total of input signals plus threshold are calculated throughout a neuron's function. After that, a nonlinear activation filter is applied to the resulting signal also known as perception. This is constructed all over the nonlinear neuron although the LMS algorithm of the former sections is constructed all over the linear neuron. Using the fuzzy logic tool, the “Fuzzy Neural Network (FNN)” has been incorporated to estimate the effort of the software (Qu et al. 2019). The fuzzy system includes four blocks such as a “fuzzifier, defuzzifier, inference engine and fuzzy rule knowledge base”. The “Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC)” works with reduced accurate inputs and there is no requirement for quick processors rather it is more vigorous as compared to other non-linear controllers. The vapour compression cycle includes for pieces such as compressor, condenser, evaporator and throttling device. The refrigerator is charged with 110g HFC134a which is 10% higher than the normal level, to analyze the vapour compression refrigeration system. For the evaluation, the inside temperature is maintained between 25°C to 27°C. During ANN analysis, one training network dataset and one testing dataset is taken. This part investigates the mixed refrigerant for their feasibility assessment to replace HFC134a. In this process, liquid refrigerant traverses the evaporator coil and absorbs heat uninterruptedly which results in the evaporation. This occurs due to the achievement of huge COP and reduced energy consumption by the mixed refrigerants.
Recommendation
As the SC technology is fault-intolerant, there is a high chance of damaging artificial neurons. For this reason, this technology should reduce its fault-intolerant nature to protect its artificial neurons.
A specific standard protocol should be required to use this technology in a more convenient way.
The technique should be modified to work on a large scale so that the technology can be capable of correctly responding to the latest pattern.
The technology should be improvised to work on linear issues parallelly which can enhance its operation.
Different methods for changing the wind turbines direction
The potential energy of the wind is transformed into mechanical energy by a rotating device known as a wind turbine. Eventually, a power grid receives such mechanical energy that has been transformed into electricity. Such energy transformations are accomplished either by rotor or generator of turbines (Carrillo and Knuuttila, 2021). The person might employ several control techniques, to maximize or restrict power production. These can manage the spinning of a wind turbine via adjusting the angular position, speed of the generator, and rotation of the generator. Pitch control refers to changing the angle of the blade, whereas yaw control refers to changing the turbine direction. Pitch control, though, is used to maintain the ideal blade angle needed to generate a specific amount of torque or operate at a particular rotor speed.
Pitch control techniques like stalling as well as furling may both be achieved by adjusting pitch (Ivanova, 2021). They may raise the angle of attack on a wind turbine by stalling it, which will turn the blade's flat side more towards the wind. The blade's edge faces the incoming wind as a result of furling, which enables in reducing the angle of attack (Dupre et al. 2020). The much more significant method for reducing output power at high speeds of wind is to change the aerodynamics force acting on the blades. In order to regulate the wind turbine's speed of the motor, the pitch control measures and modifies the inclination of the rotor blades that could be up to sixty-five meters long (Soylemez et.al, 2019). Although pitch controls are crucial, they only account for almost 3 percent of a wind turbine's operational expenses. The whole rotation of the wind turbine all along the horizontal plane is referred to as yaw. Yaw control keeps that turbine continually facing the wind, increasing the useful rotor area as well as, consequently, output. Due to how quickly wind direction may vary, the turbines may be used to indicate a path for the entering wind or limit power output. The last method of control is directed at the electrical subsystem (Mohammadi and Powell, 2020). This variable control can be achieved via power electronics, or even more specifically electronic converters connected to the generator.
The two basic types of generator controls are rotor or stator. The fixed and nonstationary components of a generator, however, are indeed the stator and rotor (Yang et al. 2019). For each scenario, you may alter the synchronous speed of the generator without regard to the grid's power or frequency by severing the connection between the stator and rotor. The much more efficient technique to maximize power generation at low wind speeds would be to regulate the speed of the synchronous generator.
Figure 17: Operations of the Wind turbine
The above figure shows the operations of the wind turbine. After considering the methods it can be said that these would be the best options for changing the pitch control of the wind turbine.
Conclusion
The planning, testing, and application of prediction are the main topics of the study. The procedure or approaches for assessing the precision of an electronic thermometer has been stated in task 1a, part A of a discussion section. The output voltage of a thermistor was also monitored using Tina-Ti in task 1a's part B software analysis. In addition to this, an evaluation of the two methodologies was made in task 1a's portion C. It provided a detailed analysis of the procedure. The performance of the capacitance gauge was also mentioned in task 1b. Task 2 would, nevertheless, present an examination of the application performance using the electronic control. Furthermore, it also had suggestions made for enhancing the current design. Finally, several strategies for reorienting wind turbines have been examined.
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